An apple fell from the tree to the ground. An apple fell from the tree. An apple fell to the ground. An apple fell.
Все их можно интерпретировать как описывающие одну и ту же ситуацию. Каждое из них, однако, сообщает о ней разную информацию. Вместе с тем, даже если исходный и / или конечный пункт не называется, их существование в связи с действием, обозначаемым глаголом to fall, очевидно для носителей языка. Отразив этот факт, показав вместе с тем возможность отсутствия соответствующих обозначений в поверхностном предложении, мы можем, например, заключив их соответствия в записи ролевой структуры глагола в скобки, тем самым, показав их факультативный поверхностный характер: fall [номинатив (локатив исх. пункт.) (локатив конечный пункт)].
Отношения между ролевой структурой глагола, семантической конфигурацией предложения и структурной схемой предложения могут быть охарактеризованы в общих чертах следующим образом. Ролевая структура глагола представляет собой наиболее полный набор ролей, детерминируемых семантикой глагола. Та или другая комбинация ролей ролевого набора плюс значение действия образует семантическую конфигурацию. С одной ролевой структурой, таким образом, может соотноситься более одной семантической конфигурации. Наконец, с определенной семантической конфигурацией может соотноситься более одной структурной схемы предложения. Например, ролевая структура глагола to cut включает [Агенс патиенс инструмент].
Семантические конфигурации предложений в связи с данным глаголом:
< cut Агенс патиенс инструмент >The glazier cuts glass with a diamond.
< cut Агенс патиенс >The glazier cuts glass.
< cut инструмент патиенс >A diamond cuts glass.
Дифференциация « актив – пассив « в связи с данными конфигурациями дает шесть разных структурных схем.
Помимо названных выше существуют и прочие роли, например, экспериенцер (от лат. Experiens « испытывающий « : партиципиант, на чье внутреннее состояние ситуация оказывает воздействие. Стимул (партиципиант, который является источником воздействия, оказываемого на внутреннее состояние участника ситуации. Реципиент (от лат. Recipiens “ получающий “: партиципиант, приобретающий что-то в ходе реализации ситуации. Элементатив — актант, отражающий стихийные силы природы, активно проявляющие себя в некоторой ситуации.
Следует отметить, что семантическому синтаксису не удалось сформулировать общепринятой классификации. В концепциях различных авторов количество предикатных актантов варьирует в довольно широких пределах – от 6-7 до 25 и более. Причины такого количественного врьирования кроются не в отсутствии объективных критериев при работе с семантическими сущностями, а в различной степени дробности, с которой ученые подходят к объекту таксономии.
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Источник
An apple fell to the ground
Newton’s home at Woolsthorpe Manor and the probable apple tree in question
In grade school you probably learned Newton’s apple story around the time you learned that George Washington chopped down a cherry tree, that people in Columbus’ time thought that the world was flat, or that the Pilgrims celebrated the first Thanksgiving in America and invited the Native Americans to join them. Since literally none of the latter three stories here are true (follow the preceding links for full details), you probably have your doubts about whether Newton actually sat under an apple tree and had something of a “eureka” moment concerning gravity.
It might surprise you to learn, then, that your teachers got one of these stories (partially) correct. Newton was indeed sitting under an apple tree when he had his so-called “eureka” moment on how gravity worked.
Although, it took him over two decades more to develop the fully-fledged theory of “universal gravitation”, first published in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica on July 5, 1687. He also didn’t complete it without some ideas others had already come up with, such as Christopher Wren, Robert Hooke, and Edmond Halley (who Halley’s comet is named after); though Newton claims particularly Hooke, who corresponded heavily with Newton on gravity, and his ideas had little real bearing on his work, other than simply to inspire him to continue working on the problem.
As Newton stated when Hooke accused Newton of plagiarizing his work:
Yet am I not beholden to him for any light into that business but only for the diversion he gave me from my other studies to think on these things & for his dogmaticalness in writing as if he had found the motion in the Ellipsis, which inclined me to try it…
So perhaps “eureka” conveys much too strong of a leap. From accounts, he was more just put on the correct path while musing under the tree.
Further, it would seem that the apple didn’t fall directly on his head- at least there is no documented evidence of this. But if you discount the notion that he near instantly fleshed out his universal theory and the “fell on his head” bit, the common story is pretty accurate.
One of the best sources we have for the “apple falling on Newton’s head” anecdote is a manuscript written by Newton’s friend William Stukeley. He published Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton’s Life in 1752, becoming one of Newton’s first biographers. Many of the incidences described in the book were recorded much earlier than 1752, including the “apple” story which was first documented in 1726, the year Newton died, and then again a year later by Voltaire in his Epic Poetry.
Stukeley’s account is as follows:
John Conduitt, Newton’s assistant and the husband of his niece, told pretty much the same story. Newton lived with the pair in his later years and doted upon their daughter. When writing about Newton, Conduitt said:
In the year he retired again from Cambridge on account of the plague to his mother in Lincolnshire & whilst he was musing in a garden it came into his thought that the same power of gravity (which made an apple fall from the tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from the earth but must extend much farther than was usually thought – Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition but being absent from books & taking the common estimate in use among Geographers & our sea men before Norwood had measured the earth, that 60 English miles were contained in one degree of latitude his computation did not agree with his Theory & inclined him then to entertain a notion that together with the power of gravity there might be a mixture of that force which the moon would have if it was carried along in a vortex, but when the Tract of Picard of the measure of the earth came out shewing that a degree was about 69.12 English miles He began his calculation a new & found it perfectly agreeable to his Theory.
The “year [Newton] retired again from Cambridge” was 1666, which means Stukeley’s recording of the event took place some 60 years after it happened. However, both Stukeley and Conduitt, among others, appear to have independently heard the story directly from Newton himself, making it reasonable to believe a falling apple was, indeed, the source of Newton’s first significant musings over how gravity works.
There are many different places which claim to be the home of the apple tree that inspired Newton’s theory, but the most likely one—given the accounts—is located at his family home of Woolsthorpe Manor near Grantham, UK.
And, yes, there is an apple tree there today that is thought to be the apple tree in question, though it has re-rooted in the interim after being knocked over in a storm in 1890. Now around 400 years old, the tree and the property are protected by the National Trust.
If you’re curious, the tree is a Flower of Kent, which doesn’t produce very good apples for eating by today’s standards, though they are considered good cooking apples. Further, the apples in question are green, not red as is often depicted in Isaac Newton/apple images.
You’ll note, of course, that Stukeley above stated there was more than one apple tree there at the time; so whether this remaining one is “the” apple tree is a question can’t be definitively answered until someone invents a machine that can take us back in time to observe the event. That being said, Dr Richard Keesing from the Department of Physics at the University of York makes a pretty good case for why it probably is the correct tree.
Despite this uncertainty, there are a many trees that have been started as grafts from the Woolsthorpe tree, including one at Trinity College in Cambridge which sits beneath the window of the room Newton used when studying there.
If you liked this article, you might also enjoy our new popular podcast, The BrainFood Show (iTunes, Spotify, Google Play Music, Feed), as well as:
Источник
Legend has it that a young Isaac Newton was sitting under an apple tree when he was bonked on the head by a falling piece of fruit, a 17th-century “aha moment” that prompted him to suddenly come up with his law of gravity. In reality, things didn’t go down quite like that. Newton, the son of a farmer, was born in 1642 near Grantham, England, and entered Cambridge University in 1661. Four years later, following an outbreak of the bubonic plague, the school temporarily closed, forcing Newton to move back to his childhood home, Woolsthorpe Manor. It was during this period at Woolsthorpe (Newton returned to Cambridge in 1667) that he was in the orchard there and witnessed an apple drop from a tree. There’s no evidence to suggest the fruit actually landed on his head, but Newton’s observation caused him to ponder why apples always fall straight to the ground (rather than sideways or upward) and helped inspired him to eventually develop his law of universal gravitation. In 1687, Newton first published this principle, which states that every body in the universe is attracted to every other body with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, in his landmark work the “Principia,” which also features his three laws of motion.
In 1726, Newton shared the apple anecdote with William Stukeley, who included it in a biography, “Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton’s Life,” published in 1752. According to Stukeley, “After dinner, the weather being warm, we went into the garden, & drank thea under the shade of some apple trees… he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind…. occasion’d by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a contemplative mood.”
The esteemed mathematician and physicist died in 1727 and was buried at Westminster Abbey. His famous apple tree continues to grow at Woolsthorpe Manor.
Источник
What causes an apple to fall to the ground?
Gravitation , or gravity , is a natural phenomenon in which objects with mass attract one another. In everyday life, gravitation is most familiar as the agent that gives weight to objects with mass and causes them to fall to the ground when dropped. Gravitation causes dispersed matter to coalesce, thus accounting for the existence of the Earth, the sun, and most of the macroscopic objects in the universe. Gravitation is responsible for keeping the Earth and the other planets in their orbits around the Sun; for keeping the moon in its orbit around the Earth; for the formation of tides; for natural convection, by which fluid flow occurs under the influence of a density gradient
and gravity; for heating the interiors of forming stars and planets to very high temperatures; and for various other phenomena observed on Earth.
Gravitation is one of the four fundamental interactions of nature, along with the strong force electromagnetism and the weak force. Modern physics describes gravitation using the general theory of relativity, in which gravitation is a consequence of the curvature of spacetime which governs the motion of inertial objects. The simpler Newton’s law of universal gravitation provides an accurate approximation for most calculations.
The force of Gravity causes the apple to fall to the ground. Gravity works through the creation of a velocity field around matter, that causes an energy field between masses.
The energy field creates a scalar energy -mGM/r and a vector Momentum energy cmV=cP. Thus the energy is W = -mGM/r + cP, a Quaternion energy. This Quaternion energy is a New Law of Gravity that identifies so-called «Dark Energy» as the vector Momentum energy and the source of the redshift from the Continuity Condition;
mv2/r =cDEL.P = cp/r cos(P).
v/c = cos(P) the redshift.
The general theory of relativity does not describe gravity, it does not account for the «Dark Energy» cP and the redshift as does the Quaternion Theory of Gravity,
Источник
An apple fell to the ground
Newton’s home at Woolsthorpe Manor and the probable apple tree in question
In grade school you probably learned Newton’s apple story around the time you learned that George Washington chopped down a cherry tree, that people in Columbus’ time thought that the world was flat, or that the Pilgrims celebrated the first Thanksgiving in America and invited the Native Americans to join them. Since literally none of the latter three stories here are true (follow the preceding links for full details), you probably have your doubts about whether Newton actually sat under an apple tree and had something of a “eureka” moment concerning gravity.
It might surprise you to learn, then, that your teachers got one of these stories (partially) correct. Newton was indeed sitting under an apple tree when he had his so-called “eureka” moment on how gravity worked.
Although, it took him over two decades more to develop the fully-fledged theory of “universal gravitation”, first published in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica on July 5, 1687. He also didn’t complete it without some ideas others had already come up with, such as Christopher Wren, Robert Hooke, and Edmond Halley (who Halley’s comet is named after); though Newton claims particularly Hooke, who corresponded heavily with Newton on gravity, and his ideas had little real bearing on his work, other than simply to inspire him to continue working on the problem.
As Newton stated when Hooke accused Newton of plagiarizing his work:
Yet am I not beholden to him for any light into that business but only for the diversion he gave me from my other studies to think on these things & for his dogmaticalness in writing as if he had found the motion in the Ellipsis, which inclined me to try it…
So perhaps “eureka” conveys much too strong of a leap. From accounts, he was more just put on the correct path while musing under the tree.
Further, it would seem that the apple didn’t fall directly on his head- at least there is no documented evidence of this. But if you discount the notion that he near instantly fleshed out his universal theory and the “fell on his head” bit, the common story is pretty accurate.
One of the best sources we have for the “apple falling on Newton’s head” anecdote is a manuscript written by Newton’s friend William Stukeley. He published Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton’s Life in 1752, becoming one of Newton’s first biographers. Many of the incidences described in the book were recorded much earlier than 1752, including the “apple” story which was first documented in 1726, the year Newton died, and then again a year later by Voltaire in his Epic Poetry.
Stukeley’s account is as follows:
John Conduitt, Newton’s assistant and the husband of his niece, told pretty much the same story. Newton lived with the pair in his later years and doted upon their daughter. When writing about Newton, Conduitt said:
In the year he retired again from Cambridge on account of the plague to his mother in Lincolnshire & whilst he was musing in a garden it came into his thought that the same power of gravity (which made an apple fall from the tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from the earth but must extend much farther than was usually thought – Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition but being absent from books & taking the common estimate in use among Geographers & our sea men before Norwood had measured the earth, that 60 English miles were contained in one degree of latitude his computation did not agree with his Theory & inclined him then to entertain a notion that together with the power of gravity there might be a mixture of that force which the moon would have if it was carried along in a vortex, but when the Tract of Picard of the measure of the earth came out shewing that a degree was about 69.12 English miles He began his calculation a new & found it perfectly agreeable to his Theory.
The “year [Newton] retired again from Cambridge” was 1666, which means Stukeley’s recording of the event took place some 60 years after it happened. However, both Stukeley and Conduitt, among others, appear to have independently heard the story directly from Newton himself, making it reasonable to believe a falling apple was, indeed, the source of Newton’s first significant musings over how gravity works.
There are many different places which claim to be the home of the apple tree that inspired Newton’s theory, but the most likely one—given the accounts—is located at his family home of Woolsthorpe Manor near Grantham, UK.
And, yes, there is an apple tree there today that is thought to be the apple tree in question, though it has re-rooted in the interim after being knocked over in a storm in 1890. Now around 400 years old, the tree and the property are protected by the National Trust.
If you’re curious, the tree is a Flower of Kent, which doesn’t produce very good apples for eating by today’s standards, though they are considered good cooking apples. Further, the apples in question are green, not red as is often depicted in Isaac Newton/apple images.
You’ll note, of course, that Stukeley above stated there was more than one apple tree there at the time; so whether this remaining one is “the” apple tree is a question can’t be definitively answered until someone invents a machine that can take us back in time to observe the event. That being said, Dr Richard Keesing from the Department of Physics at the University of York makes a pretty good case for why it probably is the correct tree.
Despite this uncertainty, there are a many trees that have been started as grafts from the Woolsthorpe tree, including one at Trinity College in Cambridge which sits beneath the window of the room Newton used when studying there.
If you liked this article, you might also enjoy our new popular podcast, The BrainFood Show (iTunes, Spotify, Google Play Music, Feed), as well as:
Источник
