Apple pear and banana juice

Apple vs Banana — Health impact and Nutrition Comparison

Summary

Apples have a lower glycemic index and are lower in calories, carbohydrates, total sugars, and richer in vitamin K. On the other hand, bananas are richer in potassium, magnesium, manganese, vitamins C, B6, A, and folate. They have similar amounts of dietary fibers.

Table of contents

Introduction

Apples have originated in central Asia, and from there, it has spread throughout the whole world. There are 7500 types of apples, and different apples are cultivated for different purposes. Apples can be used for cooking, consuming raw, making compote, apple cider vinegar, and the apple cider alcoholic beverage. The most famous type of apple is the «red delicious,» which is full-flavored and sweet. It is usually consumed as a fruit. The «granny smith» apple is a tart tasted apple with various usages, such as making cider but can also be eaten as a fruit.

Bananas, on the other hand, are considered one of the most harvested fruits worldwide.

Indigenous to India and Southeast Asia, however nowadays, it is cultivated all over the world. Compared to apples, it has a shorter shelf life, approximately 5 days, and after that, it will start to overripe.

Bananas can be used in various ways; they can be consumed raw, made into smoothies, and even used as an ingredient for baking.

Bananas that are cultivated today are different from wild-type bananas. Wild bananas were much smaller in size and contained seeds in them. In the early centuries, wild-type bananas were modified and made into the current day domesticated bananas.

In this article, we will be comparing the nutritional content of apples and bananas, the vitamin and mineral content, health impacts, and the variety of uses.

Nutritional content comparison

Apples and bananas are considered low glycemic index foods. The glycemic index of apples is 38, and for bananas, the glycemic index is 51, thus making the glycemic index of apples lower than that of bananas.

Calories

Apples have 41 calories per 100g, and bananas have 59 calories per 100g. Both can be considered low-caloric foods.

Carbohydrates

Apples contain 13.81g of carbohydrates which are distributed among sugars, carbohydrate vitamins, and dietary fibers. While on the other hand, bananas contain 23g of carbohydrates distributed among sugars, dietary fibers, and vitamins. However, an interesting aspect is a direct correlation between the ripening of the banana and the amounts of sugar and dietary fibers it contains. Unripe bananas, similar to ripe, contain 23g of carbohydrates, but dietary fiber and sugars are different. In unripe bananas, the carbohydrates are resistant to absorption, also known as resistant starch, thus acting as dietary fibers. On the other hand, ripe bananas have transformed this starch into sugars, increasing sugar in ripe bananas.

Dietary fibers

Apples and bananas have similar amounts of dietary fibers. For apples, the fiber content is 2.4g, while for bananas, the fiber content is 2.6g. However, as previously mentioned, the fiber distribution in bananas contains different amounts of dietary fibers as the ripening level differs.

Sugars

Apples have lower sugar amounts than bananas, as apple contain10.4g of sugars, whereas bananas contain 12.2g of sugars. As previously mentioned, as the ripening of the banana progresses, the number of sugar increases.

Protein

Bananas have higher proteins than apples since bananas contain 1.09g of proteins and apples contain 0.26g. These amounts are negligible relative to the daily recommended values, which is 56g by average for a sedentary person.

The content of fat for both fruits is negligible.

Vitamin content comparison

The main vitamin composition of bananas per 100g is as following:

• Vitamin C: 8.7mg
• Vitamin B6: 0.367mg
• Vitamin A: 64IU
• Folate: 20mcg

The main vitamin composition of apples per 100g is as follows:

• Vitamin C: 4.6mg
• Vitamin K: 2.2mcg
• Vitamin A: 54IU

As observed above, bananas contain higher amounts of vitamin C and A, common between them. Additionally, bananas contain vitamin B6 and folate. On the other hand, apples are richer in vitamin K.

Vitamin Comparison

Mineral content comparison

Apples don’t have a remarkable mineral profile. All the minerals present in it are at trace levels.

On the other hand, bananas are rich in potassium, magnesium, and manganese.

Mineral Comparison

Potassium

The daily recommended value of potassium is between 3500mg and 4700mg per day. 100g of bananas contain 360mg of potassium on average, making it one of the top foods containing potassium. On the other hand, apples contain 107mg of potassium per 100g. Relative to the daily recommended value, this amount is negligible.

Health impacts

Apple consumption has been related to lowering the risk of mortality due to cancer. In contrast, bananas are related to lowering mortality rates due to cardiovascular diseases. (1)

Apples have multiple protective roles, which are: (2) (3)

• Anti-cancer, highly protective against breast, colorectal, and lung cancer (among others).
• Anti-obesity and anti-diabetic; consumption of apples reduces the risk of developing diabetes and obesity
• Anti-inflammatory properties
• Increased cognitive performance in patients diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease.
• Increased ventilatory performance in patients diagnosed with asthma and chronic pulmonary obstructive disease.

Bananas have antidiabetic properties. An enzyme in the digestive system breaks down big chain sugars into smaller sugar molecules to absorb them. Bananas contain enzymes that prevent this, thus reducing the amount of absorbed sugars from the digestive tract, keeping the sugar levels in check. (4)

Lectins are active proteins in bananas that act on cancer cells and suppress cell proliferation (multiplication). This, in turn, reduces cancer propagation and metastasis. (5)

Weight loss

Apples are considered an essential food during weight loss and diets. This is because apples have a low energy level and are rich in dietary fibers, which helps maintain a negative caloric balance and weight loss. (3)

A reduction of body weight was observed, mostly in patients with diabetes, while consuming bananas, specifically bananas on the unripe spectrum of bananas. This is primarily due to feeling full-on resistant starch. (6)

Drug interaction

It is recommended to reduce the consumption of apples, mostly apple juice, while taking anticoagulant drugs, specifical warfarin. Due to the interaction of warfarin and the flavonoids of apples. (7)

In the case of bananas, it is recommended to avoid them while taking MAOI drugs (Generic names of MAOI drugs; Emsam, Marplan, Nardil, Parnate), which are a specific type of antidepressants. The side effect of the interaction of MAOI drugs and bananas can cause hypertensive crises in some patients. (8)

Variations

Apples are also consumed as apple juice; however, the sugar concentration of apple juice with the cutting down some dietary fibers does not put apple juice on the same level of health advantages as raw apples. As the peel and pulp of apples are thrown away while making apple juice, most nutritional values are lost due to this processing.

On the other hand, bananas are also consumed as smoothies, usually mixed with various other ingredients that could be milk, sugar, or other fruits. This causes a change in the macronutrient and micronutrient profiles of bananas.

Breakfast

Apples are highly recommended to be consumed in the morning with breakfast. It offers a balanced nutritional profile that provides dietary fibers.

While bananas are not recommended to be consumed at breakfast, since it is usually higher in sugars than apples, as it offers an energy boost initially, but is followed by a crash period after a couple of hours is usually expected.

In some individuals who suffer from acid reflux, consuming a banana on an empty stomach for breakfast usually worsens the reflux symptoms.

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Pear Juice

In pear juice, fructose occurs in the greatest concentration of about 7.0% (w/v), whereas the glucose content is usually low (2–2.5% w/v), with sucrose about 1% (w/v).

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Fruit Juices (Apple, Peach, and Pear) and Changes in the Carotenoid Profile

Andrea C. Galvis-Sánchez , Juliana Vinholes , in Fruit Juices , 2018

5.4.3 Pear Juice

Pear juice ’s carotenoid profile is represented mainly by (all-E)-lutein followed by β-carotene, with concentrations for (all- E)-lutein of 36.6±10.4 and 35.9±6.8 μg/100 g fresh fruit for freshly prepared juices from the “Conference” and “Blanquilla” pear varieties, respectively. The β-carotene concentrations for the same types of juices were 13.1±2.8 and 16.8±3.7 μg/100 g fresh fruit of “Conference” and “Blanquilla” pear juices, respectively ( Delpino-Rius et al., 2014 ). In this study it was possible to identify and quantify isomers of neoxanthin and violaxanthin in freshly prepared pear juices. A significant reduction in the concentration of (all-E)-lutein and β-carotene was detected in commercial juices of the same pear varieties. The (all-E)-lutein content in commercial “Conference” and “Blanquilla” pear juices were 16.8±2.7 and 8.7±1.5 μg/100 g fresh fruit, respectively; and the β-carotene concentrations were 5.7±0.8 and 2.9±0.5 μg/100 g fresh fruit, for the same commercial juices prepared using these pear varieties ( Delpino-Rius et al., 2014 ).

Cajá (Spondias mombin L.)

Plate XXVI . Coloured cactus pear juices .

Plate XXVII . Cajá fruits and pulp.

Photo: Rafaella Mattietto.

Plate XXVIII . Cajá fruits as usually commercialized at Brazilian free markets in the Northern region.

Photo: Rafaella Mattietto.

Plate XXIX . Camu-camu colour chart during ripening. Stages of maturity classified according to external skin colour and in some cases pulp colour (blending skin with different colours and white flesh). (a) Mature green; (b) Turning; (c) Half-mature; (d) Mature; (e) Fully mature.

Fruit Brandies

3.1 Pear Brandy

Even though there are many table and juice pear varieties suitable for the production of distillates, two varieties have outstanding distilling qualities: Seckel Sugar pear and Williams or Bartlett pear ( Pischl, 2011 ). Bartlett pear distillates are considered to be the best, because of their pleasant aromas, mainly due to esters ( Nikićević, 2005; Buglass et al., 2011b ). Willner et al. (2013) have characterized 26 aroma-active compounds in the volatile fraction of Bartlett pear brandy. Sensorial analysis unveiled that ethyl 2-trans, 4-cis decadienoate, and ethyl trans-2-trans-4-decadienoate are key congeners in the overall aroma of Bartlett pear brandies. However, these odorants alone are not able to mimic the overall aroma of a Bartlett pear brandy and, thus, cannot serve as single quality markers. If Bartlett pear spirit is stored in colorless bottles, the 2-trans-4-cis isomers partially isomerize to the 2-cis-4-trans and 2-trans-4-trans isomers, all of which have much less pronounced pear-like odors, so the flavor quality of the spirit decreases. No such isomerization was noted for pear spirit stored in green bottles ( Cigic and Zupancic-Kralj, 1999 ).

The possibility to obtain pear brandies with varieties different from Bartlett has been studied. García-Llobodanin et al. (2007) fermented Blanquilla pear juice concentrate previously diluted to 18° Brix. The pear wine was distilled with and without its lees using three different types of equipment: a glass alembic (a glass pot still coupled to a glass column), a copper alembic, and a glass alembic with the addition of copper shavings to the pot still. The results indicated that methanol, ethyl acetate, and furfural either decreased or showed no change in their concentrations when distilled in the presence of lees and in the copper alembic (see Fig. 10.4 ). Other compounds (ethyl decanoate and ethyl-2-trans-4-cisdecadienoate) showed increased concentrations in the presence of lees in all equipment tested (see Fig. 10.5 ).

Figure 10.4 . Effect of the presence of lees and copper in methanol, furfural, and ethyl acetate content for pear distillates.

Adapted from García-Llobodanin, L., Achaerandio, I., Ferrando, M., Güell, C., López, F., 2007. Pear distillates from pear juice concentrate: effect of lees in the aromatic composition. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55, 3462–3468.

Figure 10.5 . Effect of the presence of lees and copper in ethyl decanoate and ethyl-2-trans-4-cis-decadienoate content for pear distillates.

Adapted from García-Llobodanin, L., Achaerandio, I., Ferrando, M., Güell, C., López, F., 2007. Pear distillates from pear juice concentrate: effect of lees in the aromatic composition. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55, 3462–3468.

It was assumed that the distillation of pear wine in the presence of the lees led to better product quality. García-Llobodanin et al. (2010) studied the pH effect on fermenting Blanquilla diluted pear concentrate. They made two sets of experiments using different fermentation yeasts and different distillation equipment. The results showed, in both experimental sets, that reducing the fermentation pH significantly increased the concentration of most of the higher alcohols and decreased the concentration of ethyl acetate in the spirits. Moreover, pear distillates obtained with the rectification column showed significantly higher concentrations of most of the long-chain ethyl esters (C6–C12) compared to those obtained in the alembic. García-Llobodanin et al. (2011) used Conference pear juice to obtain a pear wine, which was distilled by alembic in double distillation and with a packed column. Pear wine distillations with a packed column produced higher alcoholic degree spirits in just one distillation, compared with two consecutive alembic distillations. In addition, column distillation produced hearts with a lower concentration of toxic compounds such as acetaldehyde and methanol. Furthermore, spirits from column distillations contained significantly more esters and higher alcohols.

Versini et al. (2012) have studied the aroma fraction of Italian distillates of wild (Pyrus amygdaliformis, Vill., namely “Pirastru”) and cultivated (Pyrus communis, L. cvs. “Coscia,” “Precoce di Fiorano,” and “Butirru de Austu”) pear varieties grown in the northern part of the island of Sardinia. They found a wide range of volatile compounds in the distillates, with each varietal product having a specific aromatic profile. Taking into account what has been reported in the literature, the aromatic profiles of these products proved different from the most well-known Bartlett pear distillates: only Coscia distillates are rich in methyl and ethyl unsaturated decanoates, the typical Bartlett pear aroma compounds. Other compounds, such as fatty acid ethyl esters, from hexanoate to decanoate, are also usually at medium-low levels if compared with raw distillates of Bartlett pears. These ethyl esters present differences related to the year of production.

Arrieta-Garay et al. (2013) make a chemical and sensorial comparative examination of pear distillates from the three main varieties grown in Spain (Bartlett, Blanquilla, and Conference) using two distillation systems (copper Charentais alembic and packed column). The Bartlett distillates from both distillation systems possessed higher ethyl ester and acetate and lower cis-3-hexen-1-ol and 1-hexanol concentrations. Despite these differences, a sensory analysis panel could distinguish only the Bartlett alembic distillate from the alembic distillates of the other varieties. In contrast, the panel rated the packed-column distillates equally. Therefore, less aromatic pear varieties can be used to produce distillates with aromatic characteristics similar to those of the Bartlett variety if a suitable distillation process is used.

Dietary Fibers in Modern Food Production: A Special Perspective With β-Glucans

Asif Ahmad , Nauman Khalid , in Biopolymers for Food Design , 2018

4.4 Dietary Fiber From Fruit and Vegetables

Fruits and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber, and fruit and vegetable waste may be a good option to recover dietary fiber. The apple and pear juice industries produce tons of waste material that contain valuable fiber sources and may be used as a valuable food ingredient ( Morris, 1985 ). These materials mainly comprise cellulosic and hemicellulosic substances, along with lignin and pectin. If used in food products, they have great water-holding capacity. The extracted fibers from these sources may be incorporated in cereal-based products, baked items, granola bars, meatballs, dairy-based products, and confectionaries. The functional properties of spray-dried apple fiber were investigated by several researchers and were found to be at par with wheat and oat bran when used in bread, cookies, and muffins. On a weight basis, the dietary fiber content from waste apple pomace was higher than wheat or oat bran. Cellulose was the more dominant fraction in the apple fiber, followed by hemicellulose and lignin. This fiber holds a greater water-holding capacity (more than 9 times of its dry weight) due to the presence of hemicellulose and pectin ( Chen et al., 1988 ). Similar results were obtained when dietary fiber from kiwi fruits and pears were tested from the waste-processing material collected from ultrafiltration plant of kiwi and pear puree processing facilities. Pear pomace and kiwi pomace contained dietary fiber of 43.9 and 25.8%, respectively. Pectin was the dominant material in these kinds of SDF sources ( Martin-Cabrejas et al., 1995 ). In orange- and grapefruit juice–processing industries, peel and extracted pulp is the main waste material from which dietary fiber can be extracted in large amounts. The alcohol-insoluble materials from these wastes can be further fractionated as alkali- and acid-SDF that may be a great source of cellulosic-based dietary fiber, along with some uronic acid units ( Ting and Rouseff, 1983 ). For pineapple peel, Larrauri et al. (1995) described a novel powdered-drink product that utilized dietary fiber from the peel portion. In addition to peel dietary fiber, this powdered drink also contained citric acid, sugars, foaming agent, color, and flavoring in the dry mix. The product was named as FIBRALAX, and had about 25.0% dietary fiber and 66.2% digestible carbohydrates. Another important source of dietary fiber is the peel and pulp waste from the extraction of peach juice. It is a rich source of dietary fiber containing about 31%–36% fiber material on dry weight basis. The greater portion is comprised of insoluble fiber, but soluble fiber content is low compared to cereal sources. Such fibrous material has high water-holding capacity and can be incorporated into bakery products, extruded products, and dietetic beverages ( Grigelmo-Miguel and Martin-Belloso, 1997 ). In mangoes, by-product yield in a processing plant may range from 35%–60%. All of this material can serve as a source of dietary fiber. Almost equal amounts of SDF and IDF can be extracted. SDF from mangoes waste exhibits good shear-thinning properties and reduces starch digestibility when used in mashed potatoes. This is of major significance for type 2 diabetic patients where slow glucose diffusion is required ( Gourgue et al., 1992 ). Grape pomace is another potential source of dietary fiber having more than 77% of dietary fiber (on dry weight basis) in grape pomace from which grape juice has been extracted. The major portion of it comprises of SDF, hemicellulose, and pectin in small amounts ( Valiente et al., 1995 ). The same amount of dietary fiber also exists in date flesh and seed. The coarsely milled fraction of dates contains about 71% dietary fiber that can be added to numerous food products. It is interesting to note that Saudi Mafrood date seed fiber, when incorporated into baking products, has the same organoleptic properties as the control bread product ( Almana and Mahmoud, 1994 ).

Pectinases: Production and Applications for Fruit Juice Beverages

Anand Nighojkar , . Sadhana Nighojkar , in Processing and Sustainability of Beverages , 2019

8.8.3 Fruit Juice Clarification

The oldest process for clarifying the fruit juices using the pectic enzymes still finds the largest market for these enzymes. The freshly pressed fruit juices especially, apple, pear, and grape juices are turbid and viscous. Treatment with pectinolytic enzymes rapidly reduces the viscosity and turbidity by settling out the cloudy particles by aggregation. The juice can be separated from these particles by filtration or centrifugation or simply siphoning out from the sediment. The end product so obtained is a sparkling clear juice ( Li et al., 2017 ).

Careful experimentation with the purified enzymes has led to the conclusion that the clarification process is a combined effect of pectin methylesterase and polygalacturonase ( Endo, 1965 ) or pectin lyase alone in case of apple juice, which contains highly esterified pectin (> 80%) ( Ishii and Yokotsuka, 1972 ). In grape juice, which contains pectin with a lower degree of esterification (44%–65%), pectin lyase alone does not perform as well ( Ishii and Yokotsuka, 1973 ). Recently, Gainvors et al. (1994) have used S. cerevisiae, yeast, producing pectin degrading enzymes for the clarification of fruit juices. A magnetic tri-enzyme nanobiocatalyst comprising of amylase, pectinase, and cellulase has been used for clarification of grapes, apple, and pineapple juices ( Sojitra et al., 2016 ). Pectin degrading enzymes are used to clarify following important fruit juices.

Apple juice: Aspergillus pectinolytic enzymes have been used for clarification of apple juice. A clearer apple juice with increased % transmission (1.7–5.6) was obtained after overnight treatment with pectin methylesterase and polygalacturonase ( Joshi et al., 2011 ). Similarly, Kant et al. (2013) reported increase in % transmission from 1.7 to 20.4 upon overnight incubation with polygalacturonase enzyme. Sandri et al. (2013) reported a 90% decrease in apple juice turbidity using A. niger pectinase enzyme. Yuan et al. (2011) applied polygalacturonase of Penicillium sp. for apple juice which reduced the intrinsic viscosity of apple juice by 4.5%, and increased the light transmittance by 71.8%. Bispora sp. pectinase treated apple juice showed 84% increase in transmittance and reduction in viscosity by 7.7% ( Yang et al., 2011 ). Effect of high pressure on apple juice clarification by pectin methylesterase has also been studied by Baron et al. (2006) . Immobilized pectinase in reusable polymers has been used for clarification of apple juice ( Rajdeo et al., 2016 ).

Orange and mosambi juice: Citrus fruits viz. oranges, lemon, and grapefruit are rich in pectin concentration ( Galant et al., 2014 ). Commercially prepared citrus juices have one-third of the insoluble material as pectin, which is found within the juice cloud ( Baker and Bruemmer, 1969 ). Orange pectin is partially methylated because of the removal of methoxyl group from pectin by pectin methylesterase ( Kashyap et al., 2001 ; Maran et al., 2013 ). In orange juice, an undesirable precipitation of haze particles is formed due to the formation of calcium pectate in the presence of calcium ions. A mixture of pectinase, xylanase, and CMCase from A. awamori clarified orange juice by 95% in tray reactor ( Diaz et al., 2013 ). Rai et al. (2004) obtained 89% clarified mosambi juice with A. niger pectinase using enzyme protein in a concentration 0.004 g/L for 99 min, at 42°C.

Passion fruit juice: This juice has commercial importance due to its pleasant unique aroma and flavor. Jiraratananon and Chanachai (1996) observed a reduction in viscosity by 18% with use of pectinase in passion fruit juice. Chitosan treatment was used with passion fruit juice for clarification by centrifugation at 4000 rpm followed by coagulation/flocculation process at 300 ppm and pH 6.

Banana juice: Pectin and starch are the main causes of turbidity of banana juice. Pectin makes the clarification process difficult because of its fiber-like molecular structure. The optimum conditions for clarification of banana juice are found to be 0.084% enzyme concentration, 43.2°C incubation temperature, and incubation time of 80 min by response surface methodology ( Lee et al., 2006 ).

Lemon juice: Penicillium occitanis pectinase has been used for lemon juice clarification ( Maktouf et al., 2014 ). The optimum treatment conditions reported were 600 U/L enzyme concentrations, 45 min and 30°C under optimized conditions with 77% reduction in viscosity, and 47% reduction in turbidity.

Mango juice: Pectinase from A. foetidus has been reported for mango juice clarification ( Kumar et al. 2012 ). Mango juice was treated with 20 mL of crude enzyme preparation (specific activity 228 IU/mL). The maximum mango juice clarification (92.5%) was obtained at temperature of 40 C and 150 min incubation time.

Pineapple juice: Pectin methylesterase from A. tubingensis has been used for pineapple juice clarification ( Patidar et al. 2016b ). It was found that increase in amount of enzyme from 10 to 100 U increased the juice clarification from 3.1% to 19.5% and decreased the pH from 4.3 to 3.0 at 30°C. Tochi et al. (2009) reported pineapple juice clarification by commercially available A. niger pectinase (Sigma-Aldrich) which showed reduction in turbidity from 1.5 to 0.8 at 35 C. de Carvalho et al. (2008) reported 5% change in pineapple juice sugar content due to addition of pectinase and cellulase followed by cross flow micro- and ultra-filtration to maintain the nutritional quality of pineapple juice.

Blue berry juice: Blueberry juice has nutritional potential and has been clarified by Sandri et al. (2013) using pectinase of A. niger produced in SSF.

Guava juice: South Africa, India, and Hawaii are major producers of Guava. Kant et al. (2013) used A. niger polygalacturonase for guava juice clarification. They showed that the addition of enzyme increased the mg% sugar content from 1.7 to 20.4 and % transmission at 650 nm from 1.9 to 4.8, simultaneously also reducing the pH of the juice.

Pomegranate juice: The juice upon treatment with pectinolytic and proteolytic enzymes underwent clarification and reduction in turbidity and haze ( Cerreti et al., 2016, 2017 ). They have used response surface methodology for analysis of incubation time, temperature, and complex enzyme amount which was reported to be 100–110 min, 25–30 C, and 0.22–0.25 g%, respectively.

Date syrup: Dates play an important part in the economic and social lives of the people of the hot desert regions of the world. They are marketed globally as a high-value fruit ( Abbès et al., 2011 ). The commercial quality of date syrup increases on addition of pectinase. The use of pectinase and cellulase enzyme (50U/5U) gave the highest recovery of total soluble solids and the lowest turbidity compared with control sample.

Cider (Cyder; Hard Cider)

Introduction

Cider (cyder, United States: hard cider) is an alcoholic beverage produced by the fermentation of apple juice; a related product, perry (also known as pear cider) is produced by the fermentation of pear juice . Cider and perry have been produced for more than 2000 years in temperate areas of the world. Traditional cidermaking in England, France (Normandy and Brittany), northern Spain, Ireland, and Germany is based largely on farmhouse production; in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, farm laborers in England received up to 2 l cider day −1 as part of their wages.

In England, commercial cidermaking started during the late nineteenth century, although some farmhouse cider had been sold commercially since the eighteenth century. Total cider production in England in 1900 was estimated at 0.25 × 10 6 hl, of which about 0.025 × 10 6 hl was produced commercially. In 2010, total European production of cider and perry was 14.3 × 10 6 hl, of which the United Kingdom produced about 9 × 10 6 hl, mostly as commercial products. Commercial ciders are now produced also in Argentina, Austria, Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, Finland, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States.

Specific Features of Table Wine Production Technology

3.1.2 Sugars

The Asian pears have sweet to sweet tart taste and a fragrant aroma, having 15% natural sugar, although 9–12% is the most typical. Pear contains three major sugars, namely sucrose, glucose, and fructose ( Kadam et al., 1995 ). In pear juice , fructose occurs in the greatest concentration of about 7.0% (w/v), whereas the glucose content is usually low (2–2.5% w/v), with sucrose about 1% (w/v). Sorbitol (sweetener) is also found in perry juice in a concentration ranging from 1 to 5% (w/v). Because this compound is not fermented by yeasts, it remains after fermentation and increases the specific gravity of dry perry. Xylose (0.2% w/v) and other sugars like galactose, arabinose, ribose, and inositol are also present in perry.

THERMAL PROCESSES | Pasteurization

A. acidoterrestris Spores

Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris is a thermo-acidophilic (pH 3.5–4.5; temperature 35–53 °C), nonpathogen and spore-forming bacterium identified in the 1980s ( Deinhard et al., 1987 ; Wisotzkey et al., 1992 ), which has been associated with various spoilage incidents in shelf-stable apple and orange juices ( Silva and Gibbs, 2004 ). The presence of ω-alicyclic fatty acids as the major natural membrane lipid component gave the name Alicyclobacillus to this genus ( Wisotzkey et al., 1992 ). Since this microbe does not produce gas, spoilage is detected only by the consumer at the end of the food chain, resulting in consumer complaints, product withdrawal, and subsequent economic loss. Spoilage aromas and taste are related to the production of a bromophenol and guaiacol. A relatively low level of 10 5 –10 6 cells ml − 1 in apple and orange juices formed enough guaiacol (ppb) to produce sensory taint ( Pettipher et al., 1997 ). Spoilage by A. acidoterrestris has been observed mainly in apple juice, but also in pear juice , orange juice, juice blends, and canned diced tomatoes ( Cerny et al., 1984 ; Splittstoesser et al., 1994 ; Yamazaki et al., 1996 ; Pontius et al., 1998 ; Walls and Chuyate, 2000 ). Incidents were reported from around the world (Germany, United States, Japan, Australia, and United Kingdom). A survey carried out by the National Food Processors Association in the United States ( Walls and Chuyate, 1998 ) had shown that 35% of juice manufacturers had problems especially during warmer spring and summer seasons, possibly associated with Alicyclobacillus. Another incident with many complaints from consumers, referred to an iced tea (pH = 2.7) submitted to a thermal process of 95 °C for 30 s, followed by hot-filling into cartons ( Duong and Jensen, 2000 ). The slow cooling of the hot-filled tea or the high storage temperature may have allowed sufficient time for the spores to germinate and grow, causing taint problems. Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris spore germination and growth (to 10 6 cfu ml − 1 ) under acidic conditions was reported in orange juice stored at 44 °C for 24 h ( Pettipher et al., 1997 ) and also in apple, orange, and grapefruit juices stored at 30 °C ( Komitopoulou et al., 1999 ) (see Table 3 ). Spore germination and growth was observed after 1–2 weeks in apple juice, orange juice, white grape juice, tomato juice, and pear juice incubated at 35 °C ( Walls and Chuyate, 2000 ). Red grape juice did not support growth ( Splittstoesser et al., 1994 ), possibly due to the polyphenols. The increase of soluble solids from 12.5 °Brix (a_w = 0.992) to 38.7 °Brix (a_w = 0.96) inhibited growth of A. acidoterrestris spores ( Sinigaglia et al., 2003 ).

Table 3 . Heat resistance of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris spores in several high-acid fruit products (pH

Heating medium	Spore strain	pH	SS (°Brix)	T (°C)	D-value (min)	z-value (°C)	Reference
Juices, nectars, fruit drinks, and wine
Orange juice drink	NR	4.1	5.3	95	5.3	9.5	Baumgart et al. (1997)
Fruit drink	NR	3.5	4.8	95	5.2	10.8
Fruit nectar	NR	3.5	6.1	95	5.1	9.6
Apple juice	VF	3.5	11.4	85 90 95	56 23 2.8	7.7	Splittstoesser et al. (1994)
Grape juice	WAC	3.3	15.8	85 90 95	57 16 2.4	7.2
Orange juice	Type	3.5	11.7	85 91	66 12	7.8	Silva et al. (1999)
Orange juice	DSM 2498; three isolated strains: 46; 70; 145.	3.2	9.0	85 90 95	50–95 10–21 2.5–8.7	7.2–11.3	Eiroa et al. (1999)
Orange juice	Z	3.9	NR	80 90 95	54 10 3.6	12.9	Komitopoulou et al. (1999)
Apple juice	Z (CRA 7182)	3.5	NR	80 90 95	41 7.4 2.3	12.2
Cupuaçu extract	Type	3.6	11.3	85 91 95 97	18 5.4 2.8 0.57	9.0	Silva et al. (1999)
Grapefruit juice	Z	3.4	NR	80 90 95	38 6.0 1.9	11.6	Komitopoulou et al. (1999)
Berry juice	NR	3.5	NR	88 91 95	11 3.8 1.0	7.2	Walls (1997)
Wine	NR	NR	NR	75 85	33 0.57	10.5	Splittstoesser et al. (1997)
Fruit concentrates
Blackcurrant concentrate	Type	2.5	58.5	91	24	NR	Silva et al. (1999)
Light blackcurrant concentrate	Type	2.5	26.1	91	3.8	NR

SS = soluble solids (°Brix), T = temperature (°C), NR = not reported, A. acidoterrestris type strain = NCIMB 13137, GD3B, DSM 3922, ATCC 49025.

The spores of A. acidoterrestris are very resistant to heat compared with the major spoilage microbes and enzymes typical in high-acid shelf-stable foods, presenting 4 min Splittstoesser et al., 1997 ), potentially due to the alcohol or other constituents created by fermentation. Further conclusions about A. acidoterrestris spore thermal resistance depend on the spore strain or fruit product. As expected when increasing the soluble solids from 26.1 to 58.5 °Brix in blackcurrant concentrate, the D_{91 °C}-values increased from 3.8 to 24.1 min ( Silva et al., 1999 ). However, growth of A. acidoterrestris is inhibited at high soluble solids concentration, for example, no growth was observed in apple concentrate between 30 and 50 °Brix ( Walls and Chuyate, 2000 ) and in white grape juice with more than 18 °Brix ( Splittstoesser et al., 1997 ).

Waste From Fruit Wine Production

5.1 Characterization of Winery Liquid Effluents

As illustrated in Tables 11.3–11.5 , the aforementioned liquid effluents are acidic and have high contents of organic matter. The WWs from fruit-processing industries are slightly acidic in nature, which is due to the biological breakdown of fruits mainly under anaerobic conditions. Low pH can cause corrosion of the plant machinery and materials, can hamper the biological oxidation treatment, and can also cause poor settling of the primary sludge. Banana, apple, apricot, peach, and pear juice processing are the examples exhibiting the highest pollution load from the fruit industry ( Joshi, 2000 ). The characteristics of these fruit processing WWs are shown in Table 11.5 .

Table 11.4 . Pollution Loads at Various Stages in Fruit Juice Factories ( Joshi, 2000 ; Barnes et al., 1984 )

Process Stage	pH	BOD (mg/L)	Settleable Solids (mg/L)	Wastewater (m 3 /m 3 )
Pressing	5.8–6.0	2850–2870	26.4–26.6	0.82–1.42
Container cleaning	7.0–9.3	730–810	4.8–36.0	0.015–0.019
Bottle cleaning	8.4–9.4	52–290	–	0.23–1.82
Filtration	5.9–6.9	–	12.0–20.4	0.005–0.013
Refining solids	–	67–500	–	0.06

BOD, biochemical oxygen demand.

Adapted from Joshi, C., 2000. Food processing waste treatment technology. In: Verma, L.R., Joshi, V.K. (Eds.), Postharvest Technology of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. 1. Indus Publishing Co, New Delhi, p. 440.; Barnes, D., Forester, C.F., Hrudly, S.E., 1984. Survey in Industrial Waste Treatment. Food and Allied Industries, vol. 1. Pitman Pub, Co, London.

Table 11.5 . Characteristics of Fruit Processing Wastewater ( Joshi, 2000 )

Fruit Processed	Wastewater (L per Ton of Raw Product)	BOD (kg per Ton of Raw Product)	TSS (kg per Ton Product)
Apples	10	9.0	2.2
Apricots	23	20	4.9
Peaches	13	17.5	4.3
Pears	15	25	–
Plums	10	5	1

BOD, biochemical oxygen demand; TSS, total suspended solids.

The fruit pressing stage generates the highest amount of polluted WW characterized by greater BOD and SS concentrations. Segregation of different WW streams and assessment of their individual waste characteristics are the key factors for planning an efficiently designed WW from the resources recovery view point. Table 11.4 presents WW quantities and pollution loads generated in terms of pH, BOD, and settleable solids for various WW streams generated from different segments of a fruit juice processing plant. Data in the table indicate that the bottle cleaning procedure generates a high hydraulic load and a lower pollution load than the other streams. This stream could be treated with primary treatment and joined with the final outlet stream resulting after treatment for dilution, or it could be directly used for on-land application of irrigation.

Both dilute and concentrated vinasse can be used as organic fertilizer. In this case the agricultural soils are considered a land treatment system but will also benefit from nutrients present in the vinasse. However, possible adverse environmental impacts such as the enrichment of salt in the soil and nitrate leaching need to be considered. Sustainable management of vinasse spreading on agricultural fields therefore requires a precise understanding of C and N mineralization kinetics. The WWs, including vinasses, from alcohol distilleries have different compositions and mineralization pathways, which could be helpful to understand their subsequent behaviors in soils ( Parnaudeau et al., 2008 ).

In general, winery effluents are biodegradable and the ratio BOD₅/COD is higher is during the vintage period, because of the presence of molecules such as sugars and ethanol ( Ganesh et al., 2010 ). Part of the organic load contained in the winery effluents is bio-recalcitrant and potentially toxic to various microorganisms and plant species. The COD concentration of grape winery effluents ranges from 320 to 49,105 mg/L (mean value: 11,886 mg/L), whereas the BOD₅ ranges from 203 to 22,418 mg/L (mean value: 6570 mg/L) ( Ioannou et al., 2015 ).

SOFT DRINKS | Microbiology

Spoilage Bacteria

The ecological conditions of soft drinks limit the growth of bacteria, with formulation pH having the clearest effect on the development of potential spoilage organisms. Bacterial soft-drink spoilage organisms fall into three main categories: spore-formers, lactic acid bacteria, and acetic acid bacteria. As most soft drinks are pasteurized, acidoduric/philic spore-forming bacterial species are of greatest threat to fruit-juice manufacturers. High-pH fruit or vegetable juices, tomato, apple, pear, or carrot juices have been reported spoiled by Clostridium spp. or Bacillus spp. including C. butyricum, C. pasteurianum, Bacillus coagulans, B. licheniformis, B. macerans, B. subtilis, and B. polymyxa, the thermophilic B. coagulans being the causative agent of ‘flat-souring’ in tomato juices.

Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris is an obligately aerobic spore-forming thermophilic bacteria, associated with soils and acidic fruit juices principally from warm climates. Although not common at present, this organism has the potential to become a major cause of spoilage of fruit-containing soft drinks ( Tables 5 and 6 ). It will grow at pH 2.5, and its spores have been reported to be very resistant or immune to pasteurization (D_{95 °C} of 2–12 min; D_95°C, time at temperature leaving 10 % survivors in the population). It may grow and produce tarry off-odors, including guaiacol and 2,6-dibromophenol, through the reduction of taint precursors. It does not produce gas, and bacterial haze is often not an important consideration as fruit juice may be naturally cloudy. Potentially, removal of taint precursors, limitation of storage temperature to

Table 6 . Niche habitats formed by different varieties of soft drinks, and spoilage microbes associated with these habitats

Habitat	Spoilage microbe	Spoilage indications
High carbonation	Brettanomyces/Dekkera spp.	Clouds, off-flavors, odors
High preservatives	Z. bailii, Z. bisporus, Z. lentus	Excess gas, blown cans
Juices in thin plastic	Gluconobacter (Acetomonas)	Off-flavors, haze
Tomato juices	Bacillus coagulans	Flat souring
Syrups or concentrates	Z. rouxii, Z. bailii	Excess gas, blown cans
Refrigerated juices	Z. lentus	Clouds, off-flavors
Heat-treated juices	Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris	Tarry taints, guaiacol
Heat-treated juices	Ascospore-forming molds	Mycelium, off-flavors

Unpasteurized fruit juices with pHs higher than about 3.2 may be spoiled by the growth of lactic acid bacteria. Lactobacillus or Leuconostoc spp. can cause slime, ropiness, and off-flavors in fruit juices, particularly where adapted strains have been allowed to build up in production facilities. Lactic acid bacteria are heat-sensitive and lose viability in chilled juices. (See BACILLUS | Occurrence ; LACTIC ACID BACTERIA .)

Gluconobacter spp. (Acetomonas) is the most frequently encountered cause of bacterial spoilage at low pH. Spoilage changes flavor characteristics and may lead to pack swelling and haze. Gluconobacter spp. are resistant to preservatives such as sorbic acid, benzoic acid, and DMDC, but are heat-sensitive and absolutely dependent on the presence of free oxygen. Spoilage is a problem only in gas-permeable packaging, such as still soft drinks in plastic beakers ( Table 6 ).

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