Elements in an apple

The chemistry of apples

Wild apples have been growing for millions of years and there is evidence that they were cultivated in Asia as early as 4,000 years ago. From there, apples spread across the world and gained a reputation as a healthy food – and for good reason: A “fruit pharmacy” is lurking in and just below the peel.

The water molecule H₂O is one of around 300 substances contained in an apple.

• Water
• Glucose
• Fructose
• Sucrose
• Lignin
• Pro vitamin A
• Thiamine (vitamin B1)
• Riboflavin (vitamin B2)
• Niacin (vitamin B3)
• Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)
• Cobalamin (vitamin B12)
• Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
• Folic acid (vitamin B9)
• Tocopherol (vitamin E)
• Vitamin K
• Chlorine
• Iron
• Potassium
• Calcium
• Copper
• Magnesium
• Manganese
• Sodium
• Pectin
• Phosphorus
• Sulfur
• Zinc
• Aspartic acid
• Cysteine
• Glutamic acid
• Uric acid
• Leucine
• Lysine
• Cumaroylquinic acid
• Caffeoylquinic acid
• Phloretin
• Procyanidin
• Quercetin (flavonol)
• Formaldehyde

It is said that a falling apple inspired Isaac Newton circa 1660 to come up with his revolutionary idea of gravity. Today, apples are the world’s most cultivated fruit – and still a source of inspiration for scientists, for example, because of the wealth of substances they contain.

An apple contains nearly all of the vitamins that humans need for their metabolic processes, including E 101 and E 300. Riboflavin (E 101), also known as vitamin B2, is a natural dye and is important for protein and energy metabolism. Ascorbic acid (E 300) is better known as vitamin C and is one of the most effective antioxidants. On average, 100 grams of apple contain 12 percent of the recommended daily intake of Vitamin C.

As well, minerals and trace elements based on calcium, magnesium, sulfur, phosphorus and chlorine are found in apples. Even just one small apple provides around one-tenth of your daily potassium requirement – this is good for fitness and concentration and helps to improve muscle tone. Munching on an apple also seems to help people lose weight. This slimming effect is attributed in part to the pectin contained in the apple – due to its water-binding properties, it makes you feel full faster.

Three-quarters of the valuable substances contained in an apple are found in or directly under the peel.

But what exactly is in and under the peel? Which chemical building blocks are contained in apples and what effects do they have? “The apple cells’ molecules are distinguished from each other by many factors, depending on variety, harvesting time and method. All apples have almost identical DNA sequences, but they differ from one variety to another,” says Luca Sebastiani, Professor of Horticultural Science at the Istituto di Scienze della Vita in Pisa, Italy. But one thing they have in common is that every apple is mostly (85 percent) made up of water and contains roughly 11 – 14 percent sugar, primarily fructose. Various other substances in the apple account for the remaining few percentage points. These include polyphenols as antioxidants, which are important for the apple. They are responsible for the color and aroma of the fruit, regulate the metabolic activities of the apple and protect it from damage, such as damage caused by intense solar radiation.

Rich in nutrients

People benefit from the same properties: The positive effect of antioxidants appears to help prevent illnesses such as asthma and cancer. More than 200 milligrams of these polyphenols can be contained in 100 grams of apple. One of these is the plant pigment quercetin, which is “being researched as a natural therapeutic agent against high blood pressure,” says Sebastiani’s colleague, Professor Rossella di Stefano, who is investigating therapies for cardiovascular illness at the University of Pisa. “Various studies on humans and animals have provided indications,” di Stefano adds, “that quercetin has a possible therapeutic role in the treatment of hypertension.”

Two-thirds of the effective antioxidants in an apple are contained in and just below the skin, so eating it unpeeled is a good idea. “All apple varieties are healthy and their consumption is important for humans’ well-being,” says Sebastiani. Apples are a great source of nutrients – even though the seeds contain amygdalin, which human metabolism turns into hydrocyanic acid. There is no risk of poisoning if you eat every part of the apple, but eating only the seeds is not advisable. Even just a small volume – around 10 grams of chewed apple seeds – can be harmful to the human body. One kilogram of apples can also contain as much as 20 milligrams of formaldehyde, the common name for the chemical compound methanal. Formaldehyde, like many other substances, is a necessary component for the metabolism of organisms – and not just of apples.

A great deal of research has been done, but the complex contents of the apple, their interaction and their effects still leave some scope for scientific activity. “More largescale, randomized and well-controlled human intervention studies are required to explore the potential mechanisms,” di Stefano says. For now, the fruit still holds some secrets under its red and green skin.

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Elements in an apple

People generally want to be able to use their favorite apps on all of their devices and in any context. To meet this expectation, design an adaptable interface by configuring UI elements and layouts to automatically change shape and size on different devices, during multitasking on iPad, in split view, when the screen rotates, and more.

Device Screen Sizes and Orientations

iOS devices have a variety of screen sizes and people can use them in either portrait or landscape orientation. In edge-to-edge devices like iPhone X and iPad Pro, the display has rounded corners that closely match the device’s overall dimensions. Other devices — such as iPhone SE and iPad Air — have a rectangular display.

If your app runs on a specific device, make sure it runs on every screen size for that device. In other words, an iPhone-only app must run on every iPhone screen size and an iPad-only app must run on every iPad screen size.

Device	Dimensions (portrait)
12.9″ iPad Pro	1024×1366 pt (2048×2732 px @2x)
11″ iPad Pro	834×1194 pt (1668×2388 px @2x)
10.5″ iPad Pro	834×1194 pt (1668×2388 px @2x)
9.7″ iPad Pro	768×1024 pt (1536×2048 px @2x)
7.9″ iPad mini	768×1024 pt (1536×2048 px @2x)
10.5″ iPad Air	834×1112 pt (1668×2224 px @2x)
9.7″ iPad Air	768×1024 pt (1536×2048 px @2x)
10.2″ iPad	810×1080 pt (1620×2160 px @2x)
9.7″ iPad	768×1024 pt (1536×2048 px @2x)
iPhone 13 Pro Max	428×926 pt (1284×2778 px @3x)
iPhone 13 Pro	390×844 pt (1170×2532 px @3x)
iPhone 13	390×844 pt (1170×2532 px @3x)
iPhone 13 mini	375×812 pt (1125×2436 px @3x)
iPhone 12 Pro Max	428×926 pt (1284×2778 px @3x)
iPhone 12 Pro	390×844 pt (1170×2532 px @3x)
iPhone 12	390×844 pt (1170×2532 px @3x)
iPhone 12 mini	375×812 pt (1125×2436 px @3x)
iPhone 11 Pro Max	414×896 pt (1242×2688 px @3x)
iPhone 11 Pro	375×812 pt (1125×2436 px @3x)
iPhone 11	414×896 pt (828×1792 px @2x)
iPhone X S Max	414×896 pt (1242×2688 px @3x)
iPhone X S	375×812 pt (1125×2436 px @3x)
iPhone X R	414×896 pt (828×1792 px @2x)
iPhone X	375×812 pt (1125×2436 px @3x)
iPhone 8 Plus	414×736 pt (1080×1920 px @3x)
iPhone 8	375×667 pt (750×1334 px @2x)
iPhone 7 Plus	414×736 pt (1080×1920 px @3x)
iPhone 7	375×667 pt (750×1334 px @2x)
iPhone 6s Plus	414×736 pt (1080×1920 px @3x)
iPhone 6s	375×667 pt (750×1334 px @2x)
iPhone 6 Plus	414×736 pt (1080×1920 px @3x)
iPhone 6	375×667 pt (750×1334 px @2x)
4.7″ iPhone SE	375×667 pt (750×1334 px @2x)
4″ iPhone SE	320×568 pt (640×1136 px @2x)
iPod touch 5th generation and later	320×568 pt (640×1136 px @2x)

NOTE All scale factors in the table above are UIKit scale factors, which may differ from native scale factors. For developer guidance, see scale and nativeScale.

To learn how screen resolution impacts your app’s artwork, see Image Size and Resolution.

Auto Layout

Auto Layout is a development tool for constructing adaptive interfaces. Using Auto Layout, you can define rules (known as constraints) that govern the content in your app. For example, you can constrain a button so it’s always horizontally centered and positioned eight points below an image, regardless of the available screen space.

Auto Layout automatically readjusts layouts according to the constraints you specify for certain environmental variations, known as traits. You can set your app to dynamically adapt to a wide range of traits, including:

• Different device screen sizes, resolutions, and color gamuts (sRGB/P3)
• Different device orientations (portrait/landscape)
• Split view
• Multitasking modes on iPad
• Dynamic Type text-size changes
• Internationalization features that are enabled based on locale (left-to-right/right-to-left layout direction, date/time/number formatting, font variation, text length)
• System feature availability (3D Touch)

Layout Guides and Safe Areas

A layout guide defines a rectangular region that helps you position, align, and space your content on the screen. The system includes predefined layout guides that make it easy to apply standard margins around content and restrict the width of text for optimal readability. You can also define custom layout guides.

A safe area defines the area within a view that isn’t covered by a navigation bar, tab bar, toolbar, or other views a view controller might provide.

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Elements in an apple

Most iOS apps are built using components from UIKit, a programming framework that defines common interface elements. This framework lets apps achieve a consistent appearance across the system, while at the same time offering a high level of customization. UIKit elements are flexible and familiar. They’re adaptable, enabling you to design a single app that looks great on any iOS device, and they automatically update when the system introduces appearance changes. The interface elements provided by UIKit fit into three main categories:

Bars. Tell people where they are in your app, provide navigation, and may contain buttons or other elements for initiating actions and communicating information.

Views. Contain the primary content people see in your app, such as text, graphics, animations, and interactive elements. Views can enable behaviors such as scrolling, insertion, deletion, and arrangement.

Controls. Initiate actions and convey information. Buttons, switches, text fields, and progress indicators are examples of controls.

In addition to defining the interface of iOS, UIKit defines functionality your app can adopt. Through this framework, for example, your app can respond to gestures on the touchscreen and enable features such as drawing, accessibility, and printing.

iOS tightly integrates with other programming frameworks and technologies too, such as Apple Pay, HealthKit, and ResearchKit, enabling you to design amazingly powerful apps.

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Apple using recycled rare earth elements in iPhone 11 Taptic Engine

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Apple is using recycled rare earth elements in the Taptic Engine of the new iPhone 11 and iPhone 11 Pro, according to Apple’s Vice President of environment, policy, and social initiatives Lisa Jackson.

The term «rare earth» refers to a set of 17 chemical elements that are often used in the production of high-performance magnets, glasses, alloys, and electronics. In the iPhone, rare earth minerals are used in the Taptic Engine, a feature which allows the phone to mimic a button press without the need for physical buttons.

Economically, it makes sense. Most rare earth used in electronics is processed in China, meaning that they are especially vulnerable to trade disputes. Lisa Jackson, Apple’s Vice President of environment, policy, and social initiative, Apple’s use of recycled rare earth wasn’t related to trade tensions. Apple’s use of the materials reclaimed from older devices could, however, help to maintain a steady supply.

«This is one of those happy coincidences where what is good for the planet is really good for business at the same time,» Jackson told Reuters. «One of the things we talk about a lot internally, just in general, is how much more resilient this makes our supply chain.»

Using recycled rare earth is also good for the environment. When mined and processed, rare earth can leach into the soil and contaminate the soil, leading to a host of problems. Some rare earth elements can be absorbed into plants that are consumed by wildlife and humans, while others can contaminate the water table and render drinking water unsafe.

Recycling rare earth helps slow the damage done by reducing the need for both mining and processing raw materials. Less mining, and less processing, means less environmental damage.

Apple will be using recycled earth from an unnamed outside supplier, and not from recycled iPhones. Jackson has stated that Apple’s success has made the project viable.

«We have essentially made a market for this entrepreneur, this innovator, who found a way to recycle rare earths,» Jackson said.

Apple has also begun research into how to recover rare earth from its own products, including the iPhone, as well as encouraging other companies to try to do the same.

Apple has made some impressive strides in iPhone recycling in recent years. Liam, a robot introduced in 2016, was capable of disassembling iPhones into core components. These components could then be used in new products, such as cutting tools or solar panels.

Daisy, Liam’s successor, debuted on Earth Day 2018. Daisy is capable of dismantling 200 iPhones an hour, and at the time of introduction, could disassemble nine versions of the iPhone.

«There are some innovations of ours that we actually want people to copy. So as much as possible — as long as it doesn’t give away some of our other design and engineering innovation — we are happy to bring along the recycling industry,» Jackson said. «We have started to be much more transparent around this technology development than we usually are.»

Comments (4)

MplsP

This is good to hear — Electronics manufacturing is not necessarily environmentally friendly, and making that footprint even a little smaller is a nice move forward. Aside from supply reliability, the material quality can be an issue, so kudos to Apple and their supplier for finding ways to make it work.

As an aside, the environmental impact is something I actually thought of when I was reading the ‘should I upgrade to an iPhone 11’ article a few days ago. From an environmental standpoint, the best thing to do is keep using your phone (or any device) another year. No matter how much Apple tries to reduce the impact of its supply chain or recycle the old devices, nothing beats the environmental savings of not making a new device in the first place.

macgui

I’m glad Apple continues to make strides towards Eco-Friendlyville. In the meantime, I hope they’ve improved the Taptic Engine beyond the performance of my S2. I often miss a notification because I didn’t feel it. On occasion it just doesn’t happen, but that’s not the same thing.

not_anton

Because «Apple recycle magnets» sounds less cool.

gilly33

Good article. Great to hear about Apple’s approach to being environmentally responsible.

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